That ‘Cursed’ Horthy Regime – Hungary’s Golden Era
- v. gr. Molnár-Gazsó János
- Jun 19
- 15 min read
Updated: Jun 28
Assessment – An illuminating overview of Horthy’s 17 years in power
Seventeen years…
In the sweep of history, such a span may seem trifling—yet it has encompassed both national tragedies of colossal scale (from Mohács to Turkish rule) and periods of uplifting nation‑building, such as the seventeen or so years from the Reform Diet of 1832 to the War of Independence.
Exactly that length of time—seventeen years—was granted to us, after successive calamities, to reconstruct an independent Hungary.
It was no easy task: inflation, unemployment, economic downturns, minor wars, and assassination attempts beset us; the Great Powers and reluctant neighbours harried us…
…but we succeeded:
Our population increased by 1,639,479 during that short period.
The number of elementary and secondary schools nearly doubled, from 7,418 to 13,780; kindergartens rose from 975 to 1,140.
We built 160 new hospitals in addition to the original 187, and the number of doctors doubled.
We constructed 2,628 km of primary roads; the total length of our railways rose to 8,671 km, 243 km of which we electrified—on the basis of Hungarian invention.
We became world leaders in the production of diesel locomotives!
Our Danube ocean‑going fleet connected our waterways to the global seas.
We halved our national debt and even forgave all debts owed by farmers.
We established a universal social welfare system, equipping the pension and health‑insurance schemes with secure funding.
Growing numbers of diabetics received free medication.
Budapest became a city of (therapeutic) baths. We built holiday resorts on the Danube Bend and Soroksár branch for workers, and for civil servants in the hills and at Lake Balaton.
Budget‑friendly weekend trains began operating for leisure travel.
We rewarded public‑service personnel (utility workers, state employees, civil servants) with discounts on rail travel, holidays, insurance and utility bills in recognition of their dedicated service.
We introduced one of the world’s most stable currencies.
Politically, we strove for independence.
We restrained extremist parties, banned the swastika, and repealed the “numerus clausus”—fully overriding the United States by a decade and a half!
Admiral Miklós Horthy governed the Hungary that had suffered war, Spanish flu, red terror, and the Treaty of Trianon—this account concerns the period 1920–1937, a relatively peaceful interwar era.
My figures are precise. I sourced them from encyclopaedic works of the “happy Kádár era”, notably the Hungarian Historical Chronology (1982, Akadémiai Kiadó).
They were unlikely to be coloured by glorifying “evil Horthy‑fascism”, but rather slipped among thousands of entries on workers’ movements—so we may safely accept them as reliable. I also used my own notes.
Let me share one example. My grandmother, Mrs Irén Bleszkányi (née Sárközy Istvánné), a teacher at Csobánc Street elementary school, was entitled to a pension of 275 pengő. One pengő today equates to around HUF 1,200–1,300 (c. HUF 400,000).Her granddaughter—despite twice the working years, several degrees and a union craft—receives only a quarter to a fifth of that pension.
I myself sat in a stigmatised class (our form‑teacher was József Antall), then was compelled to work and train in a trade in Angyalföld for several years.I learnt not only a trade from veteran experts, but also that a turner could be like “Dréher”: entering Láng or Ganz‑MÁVAG in a top hat and white‑spotted gloves—and the diesel‑trains manufactured under his watch still serve in South America.
In his spare hours he sang in the factory chorus, rowed from the factory boathouse, played on the frequently mandated sports pitch—because his wife did not need to work.
His children—horror of horrors!—learnt about their homeland in school.
The era indeed had “losers”, of course. They were supported by ONCSA housing, relief programmes, talent‑rescue schemes…
We did what we could. Bear in mind that of this tragic‑kick‑off seventeen years, three to four coincided with the depths of the Great Depression.
And what of the dreaded Horthy‑fascism?
First and foremost: there was no fascism or National Socialism under Horthy!
(As an aside: post‑1945 Hungary suffered 60 years of national‑antagonistic socialism—not National Socialism!)
No single political faction dominated the media; there were some 1,500 periodicals, about 400 with political content.
No terror state held the population in fear.
Naturally, by 21st‑century standards there was no democracy—but it was the early 20th century.
To project modern norms onto that era is sheer ignorance—or malice!
The limitation of truly anti‑democratic and extremist parties at the time saved the nation.
Authoritarian?
The Regent could only return a bill to Parliament once for reconsideration—remember how the “Göncz Grandpa” played with Antall government legislation?
And that was proper authority, for he was a clean handed, honest, strong willed Hungarian leader! My friends, it was high time this was acknowledged.
(When he resigned, the Horthy family estates were just as large as when he became Regent.)
(Source: Miklós Dobay, Magyar Tudat, Miklós Horthy)
vitéz nagybányai Horthy Miklós was born in Kenderes on 18 June 1868, into a mid noble family.
The ancestor of the family, István Horthy, was granted a noble patent by King Ferdinand II in 1635. However, the family's name—of Székely origin and already residing in north-eastern Hungary at the time—was mentioned much earlier, as early as the late 16th century, in the records of the city of Debrecen. The ennoblement took place in Kolozs County on 21 June 1657.
Miklós Horthy’s father, István Horthy (1830–1904), was a member of the Upper House of the Hungarian Parliament and the owner of a 1,500-hectare estate. He was a very strict man—even towards his own children. In 1857, he married Paula Halassy of Dévaványa (1839–1895).
His paternal grandparents were István Horthy of Nagybánya (1795–1857), a county judge (tabellionis) of Szabolcs County and landowner, and Amália Puky of Bizák (1805–1839).
His maternal grandparents were József Halassy of Dévaványa (1810–1860), also a landowner, and Erzsébet Gärber (1806–1882), an actress. István Horthy and Paula Halassy had nine children: István, Zoltán, Béla (who died at the age of sixteen), Paula, Erzsébet, Szabolcs, Jenő (who died at the age of two), and another Jenő (1877–1954). Among Horthy’s brothers, István (1858–1937) served as a cavalry general during the First World War and received numerous high decorations.
Like Miklós Horthy, he was a recipient of the Order of Maria Theresa.
During the counter-revolution, he served in Székesfehérvár and supported his younger brother’s efforts. From his retirement until his death, he was a representative of the county assembly of Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok.
Miklós Horthy was baptised according to the Calvinist rite on 10 July 1868 in Kenderes. His two godfathers were Miklós Puky of Bizák (1806–1887), Chief Deputy Lord Lieutenant of Heves County, and Gáspár Halassy of Dévaványa, Deputy Lord Lieutenant; his two godmothers were Mrs Menyhért Okolicsányi (née Ilona Jármy of Szolnok) and Miss Izabella Losonczy..
On 22 July 1901, Miklós Horthy married Magdolna Purgly of Jószáshely (1881–1959) in Arad. She was the daughter of János Purgly of Jószáshely (1839–1911)—a Member of Parliament, a member of the County Assembly of Arad, Director of the Arad and Csanád United Railways and the Savings Bank, and a landowner—and Ilona Vásárhelyi of Kézdivásárhely (1841–1896).
One of the witnesses at the wedding was Pál Halasy of Dévaványa (1846–1912), an imperial and royal chamberlain and general; the other was Iván Urbán of Monyoró (1846–1915), Lord Lieutenant of Arad County. The couple had four children:
Magdolna Horthy (1902–1918), who died young of scarlet fever.
Paulette Horthy (1903–1940), who was first married to vitéz László Fáy, a landowner, and later to Count Gyula Károlyi.
István Horthy (1904–1942), chief engineer at the MÁV locomotive works, later President and CEO of MÁV (Hungarian State Railways) between 1940 and 1942, and briefly Deputy Regent. He died in a military aircraft accident on the Soviet front. His wife was Ilona Edelsheim-Gyulai (1918–2013).
Miklós Horthy (1907–1993), who married Countess Mária Consuelo Károlyi (1905–1976).
Miklós Horthy spent his early childhood up to the age of eight on the family estate in Kenderes. According to family recollections, he was an adventurous child. In his memoirs, he wrote:
“My father showed little understanding for my pranks, although my vivid imagination and thirst for adventure often led me astray. So it happened that, despite my indulgent mother’s reluctance, I was torn from the warmth of the family circle at the age of eight. I was sent to Debrecen to lodge with my two older brothers.”
He completed his elementary studies privately in Kenderes (1874–1876), and then attended the Reformed College of Debrecen (1876–1878). He pursued his secondary studies in Sopron at the Lähne Institute (1878–1882), where instruction was in German.
His brother Béla Horthy was a cadet at the naval academy in Fiume. Two months before he was due to be commissioned, he died in a fatal accident during a military exercise.
Against his family’s wishes, Miklós Horthy chose to follow in his late brother’s footsteps and enrolled at the Naval Academy in Fiume in the autumn of 1882. Out of 612 applicants, only 42 were admitted—including Miklós Horthy.
The academy was notoriously strict; about one-third of the students either dropped out or were expelled. During his time there, he learned Italian and Croatian from the sailors, in addition to his knowledge of German, English, and French. On 7 October 1886, he was commissioned as a second-class naval cadet in the Austro-Hungarian Navy.
Officer Career:
He began his naval service on the Radetzky, a three-masted sailing frigate equipped with auxiliary steam power. By 1890, he was serving as a Linienschiffsleutnant (equivalent to a lieutenant) aboard the Taurus, a station ship anchored in Constantinople.
Horthy was an accomplished sportsman and earned great respect among the local upper classes. He was an excellent sailor and a successful middle-distance runner.
He won the army championship in fencing and also excelled as a cyclist and tennis player (in doubles, he defeated the reigning champions of the British Army). He was also a first-class horseman. His athletic achievements, elegant dancing, engaging manners, and fluency in several languages made him a popular figure in high society.
However, in his official duties, he did not particularly stand out. His superiors did not consider him a talented officer. Among his fellow cadets, he was usually the last to receive appointments or promotions. From 1892 to 1894, he served as a junior officer on the Saida during its East Asian and Oceanic voyage, visiting India, Australia, and Melanesia. During the journey, he was deeply impressed by the power of the British Navy. As he later wrote in his memoirs:
“During the reign of Queen Victoria (...) the proud saying ‘Britannia rules the waves’ prevailed without question, and we encountered many deeply impressive examples of it during our voyage.”
In 1908 and 1909, he served as commander of the Taurus, now holding the rank of Linienschiffleutnant (senior lieutenant).
Between 1909 and 1914, he served as aide-de-camp to Emperor Franz Joseph. He later wrote of the Emperor in his memoirs with marked respect and reverence.
On 20 January 1914, he was promoted to the rank of Linienschiffskapitän, equivalent to colonel in the land forces.
In the First World War:
Following the outbreak of the First World War, until 1914, Horthy commanded the 8,300-ton battleship Habsburg, anchored at Pola. He was later appointed captain of one of the navy’s most modern warships, the newly constructed Novara class fast cruiser. After the Kingdom of Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary, he took part in the navy's offensive against Italian ports on 23 May 1915. As commander of the squadron led by the Novara, he directed the bombardment of Porto Corsini and participated in several similar minor operations.
On 9 July 1916, the Novara, operating alone, sank two armed British trawlers and forced two more to flee, rescuing the nine surviving crew members.
It is worth noting that even in the heat of battle, Horthy ordered the rescue of enemy sailors who had fallen into the sea. For this act of chivalry, even his adversaries spoke of him with respect.
On 15 May 1917, under his command, the cruisers Novara, Helgoland, and SMS Saida, along with the destroyers Balaton and Csepel, successfully broke through the Otranto Barrage and sank twelve steamers.
On the return journey, they engaged an Allied naval squadron led by Rear Admiral Alfredo Acton, which included the British cruisers HMS Dartmouth and HMS Bristol, the Italian cruiser Marsala, and five Italian destroyers.
During the battle—which was the first in Adriatic naval warfare where artificial smoke screens were employed by the Novara group—Horthy himself suffered injuries to the head and legs. Five shell splinters lodged in his legs. Despite his wounds, after receiving initial medical treatment, he had himself carried on a stretcher to the bridge, where he continued to command the battle until he lost consciousness due to blood loss.
The heavily damaged Novara was taken in tow by the Saida, and the slow-moving group was only saved by the arrival of reinforcements: the battleship Budapest, along with the armoured cruisers SMS Kaiser Karl VI and SMS Sankt Georg. After his recovery, on 1 February 1918, Horthy was appointed commander of the battleship Prinz Eugen. Contrary to widespread rumours and later misconceptions, he did not take part in the suppression of the Cattaro mutiny (which occurred on the Sankt Georg, Kaiser Karl VI, and Gäa warships).
On 27 February 1918, he was promoted to Rear Admiral and, surpassing several more senior ship captains and admirals, appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Imperial and Royal Navy. In June 1918, he once again led the entire fleet out to attack the Otranto Barrage, but turned back upon receiving news that the battleship Szent István, which was part of another unit, had been torpedoed.
On 31 October 1918, acting on the orders of King Charles IV, he handed over the fleet’s ships to the National Council of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs. During the Aster Revolution, the king promoted him to Vice Admiral on 1 November, but following the proclamation of the republic, he retired to his estate in Kenderes.
Commander-in-Chief of the National Army
During the Hungarian Soviet Republic, Horthy joined the counter-revolutionary movement centred in Szeged, which was under French occupation at the time. He was first appointed Minister of War in Count Gyula Károlyi's counter-revolutionary government in Szeged. Later, during the premiership of Dezső P. Ábrahám, although he was no longer part of the cabinet, he was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the National Army. The formation of the National Army had already begun under Deputy Secretary of Defence Gyula Gömbös, who organised anti-communist officer detachments even before Horthy's appointment. At that point, the Entente had also authorised the creation of a small Hungarian armed force.
The Soviet Republic was overthrown not by internal Hungarian forces, but by the Romanian army, which crossed the demarcation line set out in the Vix Note of March 1919—nominally to suppress communism—and occupied Budapest in early August 1919. At the same time, the National Army set up its headquarters in Siófok, while Horthy held key negotiations in Budapest with the Romanian commander-in-chief and the Entente Military Mission.
According to Romanian sources, the National Army even received weapons from the Romanians with the backing of the Entente. On 22 August 1919, Horthy ordered a general mobilisation.
Even Colonel Antal Lehár, who had originally organised an independent officer detachment in Szombathely, ultimately recognised Horthy’s command, acknowledging that as a Vice Admiral, he outranked him.
Horthy did not recognise the Budapest-based government of István Friedrich, which in practice held no real power. Instead, he established his own military administration in Transdanubia (Western Hungary), where his district commanders exercised full authority.
It was during this period that the so-called White Terror began, associated with figures such as Pál Prónay, Gyula Ostenburg-Moravek, and Iván Héjjas. This was widely viewed as a response to the earlier Red Terror carried out under the communist regime.
Miklós Horthy Proved to Be a Skilled Politician
The radical paramilitary officers believed that the time of military dictatorship would soon arrive, and that the Commander-in-Chief was only making concessions due to temporary circumstances. Archduke Joseph of Habsburg, who himself aspired to become Regent, was convinced that Horthy had no intention of replacing King Charles IV.
Horthy also earned the trust of the four-member Allied Military Mission sent to Budapest by the Paris Peace Conference. On 18 August 1919, Horthy informed the mission that, if given authorisation, he could organise an effective armed force within four days.
The generals of the mission were under pressure to ensure that a reliable military force would be in place to maintain order following the withdrawal of the Romanian army.
Although the preparedness and training of the National Army were considered inadequate, by November 1919—after rejecting other options—the Allied generals accepted the plan for the National Army to assume control of Budapest.
By mid-October 1919, the strength of the National Army, including other law enforcement bodies such as the gendarmerie, exceeded 30,000 men. At that time, the British diplomat Sir George Russell Clerk arrived in Budapest. He was tasked by the Supreme Council with two objectives: first, to oversee the withdrawal of the occupying Romanian forces; second, to facilitate the formation of a coalition government that the victorious powers could recognise and that would be willing to sign the peace treaty.
News of the National Army’s planned entry into Budapest triggered a wave of anxiety, particularly among the Jewish population. The Jewish Community of Pest (Pesti Izraelita Hitközség) sent a delegation to the army headquarters in Siófok, where they were received cordially. Horthy personally assured them that he would not permit a pogrom in Budapest. It was not only the Jewish population who feared reprisals, but also opposition politicians, including members of the liberal and Social Democratic parties. Clerk requested that Horthy provide formal guarantees that his troops would maintain order and refrain from any provocation. On 5 November 1919, Horthy signed a declaration to this effect. Despite isolated acts of violence, the Entente powers were generally satisfied with the conditions in Budapest following the transition of power.
On 16 November 1919, following the withdrawal of the Romanian army from the pillaged city of Budapest, Miklós Horthy entered the capital at the head of the so-called "plumed hat" army, named after their distinctive uniform featuring crane feathers. He established his headquarters at the Gellért Hotel, while the paramilitary detachments set up various independent command centres throughout the city.
By March 1920, the Romanian forces had completed their withdrawal from all territories remaining to Hungary after the Treaty of Trianon.On 1 March 1920, following preliminary negotiations, the National Assembly elected Miklós Horthy as Regent of Hungary (Act II of 1920).
The National Assembly was united on the issue of state form: all parties rejected the idea of a republic. Although there was unanimous support for the monarchy, there was deep division between the legitimists—who supported the return of Charles IV—and the so-called free royalists, who were opposed to the Habsburg dynasty.
The legitimists would have preferred the appointment of a Habsburg archduke as provisional head of state, while most of the free royalists demanded a complete break with the Habsburg House. The Allied powers and Hungary’s neighbouring countries viewed any potential return of King Charles IV as a casus belli and firmly opposed the election of any Habsburg, even in a provisional capacity. This stance further strengthened the position of Miklós Horthy, who had the support of the Entente. Horthy had no desire to become king. In principle, he acknowledged the legitimacy of Charles IV’s claim to the throne, and ultimately managed to secure the support of part of the legitimist faction for his appointment as Regent.
The National Assembly convened in February 1920 and decided to grant the future Regent powers roughly equivalent to those of a moderately strong republican president. Horthy found this insufficient, and during his nomination, he insisted that his powers be expanded at a later date. The election took place on 1 March 1920.
A Kingdom Without a King:
At the beginning of Miklós Horthy’s regency, King Charles IV twice attempted to return to Hungary. The first attempt began on 26 March 1921, when the exiled monarch, residing in Switzerland, arrived in the city of Szombathely with the support of a few aristocratic allies. There, he initiated talks with Prime Minister Pál Teleki.However, due to the uncertain stance of the French, the hostility of neighbouring states, and significant domestic opposition, Charles was eventually persuaded to abandon the restoration attempt and was sent back to Switzerland.(Prime Minister Teleki subsequently resigned.)
Charles IV tries again to reclaim the throne:
By 21 October 1921, the former king had managed to rally a broader base of support.On his way to Budapest, several military units and leaders of the counter-revolution—including Gyula Ostenburg-Moravek, Baron Antal Lehár, and Count Antal Sigray—swore allegiance to him, as did representatives of the Hungarian aristocracy led by Prince László Batthyány-Strattmann.
Charles appointed his own government, with István Rakovszky of Nagyrákó as Prime Minister.
Miklós Horthy decided to take seriously the threats of immediate military intervention made by Czechoslovak Foreign Minister Edvard Beneš—and rightly so, as neighbouring states were merely waiting for a pretext to launch another attack.
On 23 October 1921, the former king reached the town of Budaörs, accompanied by forces led by Ostenburg and Lehár, where the so-called Battle of Budaörs began.
Upon seeing the student battalions mobilised against him and the first casualties of the conflict, Charles called off the armed confrontation.The following day, reinforcements loyal to the government arrived in Budapest and were immediately dispatched to Budaörs, where they surrounded the royalist forces.
Charles’s second attempt ended in failure: on 25 October 1921, he was interned in Tihany, and on 31 October, he and his family were transported aboard the British monitor HMS Glowworm to the Portuguese island of Madeira.
On 6 November 1921, for the fourth time in Hungarian history (after 1620, 1707, and 1849), the National Assembly formally dethroned the House of Habsburg by passing Act XLVII of 1921.
The Regency of Miklós Horthy Was Now Firmly Established
By the time of this writing, the remarkable recovery experienced during Hungary’s 17 years of peace was already evident, even in a country left dismembered by the post-war treaties.
Miklós Horthy was well aware of the country’s limitations and pursued peaceful revision of the borders.
At the same time, Hungary—now reduced to a third of its former size—was geographically wedged between the two most aggressive great powers of the era.
Hitler annexed territory after territory while the Western powers remained silent. The annexation of Austria already foreshadowed what was to come.
Had Miklós Horthy taken a firm stand against Hitler at that time, it is likely that the German army would have occupied Hungary immediately.This is something even those who blame the Regent for Hungary’s wartime losses should reflect upon.
Had the German army marched in then, the deportation of the Jews would have begun at once, and far more Hungarian soldiers would have been sent to the front.
The Hungarian leadership had no real choice.Horthy’s wartime role is best illustrated by the fact that he was not convicted at the Nuremberg Trials.
He spent the final years of his life in exile in Portugal.
Author: vitéz Count János Molnár-Gazsó
Captain General of the Order of Vitéz
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